King rail
Rallus elegans
Taxonomy
Occurence in Illinois
Status
Habitat associations
Guilds
Food-habits
Environmental associations
Life history
Management practices
References
- Phylum: Chordata
- Class: Aves
- Order: Gruiformes
- Family: Rallidae
- Genus: Rallus
- Species: Rallus elegans
- Authority: Audubon
Comments on taxonomy:
Subspecies R.e. elegans occurs in Illinois *09*. Confusion over relation to clapper rail occurred at one time but as of now recognized as separate species *08,13*. Other names: freshwater marsh hen, great red-breasted rail, marsh hen *02*.
Mid April-late October; uncommon migrant and locally uncommon summmer resident; very rare winter resident *01*. Breeding records include 1983, *17,18*.
Items in bold indicate applicable categories
Forest Service Categories: S = recommended for regional sensitive status, F = forest listed species, M = management indicator species
Federal Status:
| Endangered | Threatened | Proposed for listing |
| Candidate for proposal | Recovery plan approved | Recovery plan received (USFWS) |
| Recovery plan in preparation | Under notice of review | Delisted |
| Migratory | EPA indicator | Forest Serv.- Shawnee species |
State Status:
| Endangered | Threatened | Proposed |
Other:
| Game | Furbearer | Nongame protected | |
| Sportfish | Commercial | Pest | None of the above |
Comments on status:
The king rail is not considered a game bird in Illinois *15*. See management practices. this species is protected under the Illinois Wildlife Code, 1971 *11*, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 1918 *12*.
Items in bold indicate applicable categories
General habitat:
| Unknown | Terrestrial | Aquatic | Riparian |
USFS timber inventory forest size class:
| Unknown | Unstocked | Seedling | Sapling |
| Seedling/sapling | Pole | Mature | Over mature |
Land use and land cover:
| Unknown | Urban | Residential Commercial Industrial Transportation, communication Complex industrial/commercial Mixed Other |
|
| Agricultural | Crop, pasture Orchards, groves, nurseries Feedlot Other |
Rangeland | Herbaceous Shrub and brush Mixed |
| Forestland | Deciduous Evergreen Mixed |
Water | Stream Lake Reservoir Bay |
| Wetland | Forest Non-forest |
Barren | Salt flat Beach Sand Rock Mine Transit Mix |
Forest cover types: No records.
Associated tree species: No records.
National wetland inventory classifications:
| System | Subsystem | Class | Subclass | Water regime modifiers | Water chemistry |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lacustrine | Littoral | Emergent vegetation | Persistent | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified |
| Lacustrine | Littoral | Emergent vegetation | Narrowleaved persistent | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified |
| Palustrine | Emergent vegetation | Persistent | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified | |
| Palustrine | Emergent vegetation | Narrowleaved persistent | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified | |
| Palustrine | Scrub/shrub | Deciduous | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified | |
| Riverine | Lower perennial | Emergent vegetation | Persistent | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified |
| Riverine | Lower perennial | Emergent vegetation | Narrowleaved persistent | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified |
| Riverine | Lower perennial | Flat | Mud | Unknown/unspecified | Unknown/unspecified |
Comments on species-habitat associations:
Though primarily a bird of freshwater marshes the king rail probably occurs in a wider variety of habitats than any other rail *04,09*, this species may be found in marshes, shrub swamps, ponds, stream side, roadside ditches, mudflats or upland fields *04*. As long as the terrain supports a reasonable amount of vegetation and is frequently wet the king rail has the ability to adapt *09*.
Important plant and animal association: Muskrats, rice.
Muskrats create an optimal habitat for king rails by opening up marshes and producing networks of pathways providing rails with feeding and drinking place *04*. Rice fields afford a cultivated 'marsh type' to rails in Ark. and La. and the king rail is considered a 'typical bird' of rice country *04*.
High value habitats
| Habitat | Structural stage | Season |
|---|---|---|
| Wetland | Special habitat | Spring/summer |
| Nonforested wetland | Special habitat | Spring/summer |
| Wetland | Special habitat | Fall |
| Nonforested wetland | Special habitat | Fall |
| Streams and canals | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Spring/summer |
| Lakes | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Spring/summer |
| Bays and estuaries | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Spring/summer |
| Streams and canals | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Fall |
| Lakes | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Fall |
| Bays and estuaries | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Fall |
| Marsh | Special habitat | Spring/summer |
| Marsh | Special habitat | Fall |
| Shrub swamp | Special habitat | Spring/summer |
| Shrub swamp | Special habitat | Fall |
| Sedge meadow | Special habitat | Spring/summer |
| Sedge meadow | Special habitat | Fall |
| Lakes and ponds | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Spring/summer |
| Lakes and ponds | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Fall |
| Lake Michigan | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Spring/summer |
| Lake Michigan | Not applicable (HVAL-HAB cover) |
Fall |
| Streams | Special habitat | Spring/summer |
| Streams | Special habitat | Fall |
| Abandoned cropland | Special habitat | Fall/winter |
Species-habitat interrelations: Type (wetland) function (feeding/breeding) value (high) season (spring, summer, fall). The king rail can adapt to a wide variety of habitat types as long as the terrain supports a reasonable amount of vegetation and is frequently wet *09*. Optimal habitat appears to be freshwater marshes with emergent vegetation, i.e., sedge, bulrush, or cattail *04*. Muskrats enhance marshes by opening up a network of pathways, providing potential feeding and drinking places *see 04*. Vegetation growing in tussocks or stool type substrate is attractive to nesting rails *04*. King rails feed primarily in shallow water of 2-3 inches, also, mudflats and cultivated fields *04,09*. Rice fields are an attractive cultivated 'marsh type' that attracts rails in Ark. and La. *04*. Roadside ditches with strips of emergent vegetation also appear attractive *04*. Also marshy edges of lakes, ponds, sluggish streams and sloughs *16*.
Feed-guilding:
| Habitat | Structural stage | Season | Feed-guilds |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wetland | Special habitat | Fall | Terrestrial subsurface-roots, tubers, rhizomes of herbaceous plants Terrestrial surface-flowers and fruits of grass/grasslike vegetation Terrestrial surface- arthropods Terrestrial surface-leaves, twigs, fruits, seeds of evergreen trees Terrestrial surface- amphibians Water bottom-aquatic bed, arthropods Water bottom-aquatic bed, invertebrates other than zooplankton or arthropods Water bottom-aquatic bed, fish Water bottom-aquatic bed, amphibians Water bottom-aquatic bed, reptiles |
| Wetland | Special habitat | Spring/summer | Terrestrial subsurface-roots, tubers, rhizomes of herbaceous plants Terrestrial surface-flowers and fruits of grass/grasslike vegetation Terrestrial surface- arthropods Terrestrial surface-leaves, twigs, fruits, seeds of evergreen trees Terrestrial surface- amphibians Water bottom-aquatic bed, arthropods Water bottom-aquatic bed, invertebrates other than zooplankton or arthropods Water bottom-aquatic bed, fish Water bottom-aquatic bed, amphibians Water bottom-aquatic bed, reptiles |
Comments on feed-guilding:
King rails usually feed in shallow water approx. 2-3 inches deep. They also feed on aquatic bed or off plants themselves or mudflats *02,03*. King rails are somewhat omnivorous but feed largely on aquatic animal matter *10*. Fall and winter may visit cultivated fields in search of grain *08*.
Breed-guilding:
| Habitat | Structural stage | Season | Breed-Guilds |
|---|---|---|---|
| Wetland | Special habitat | Spring/summer | River/lake/marsh, vascular plants- floating, nonwoody, rooted River/lake/marsh, vascular plants- emergent, woody Terrestrial surface Terrestrial surface, grass and grasslike vegetation |
Comments on breed-guilding:
King rails usually place nest above water in shallow part of marsh in tussock or clump of aquatic vegetation, i.e. grasses, sedges or rushes of uniform height *02,03,04*. Also, occassionally nest on dry land site of cultivated field or grassy embankments *04*. Copulation takes place near nest site *04*.
Trophic level is OMNIVORE
| Food item | Life stage/plant part |
|---|---|
| Polygonaceae (buckwheat, rhubarb) | Fruit/seeds |
| Asteraceae (asters) | Fruit/seeds |
| Araceae (water lettuce) | Tubers |
| Araceae (water lettuce) | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): oats | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): rice | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): wheat | Fruit/seeds |
| Sparaganiaceae (bur-reed) | Fruit/seeds |
| Zosteraceae (pondweed) | Fruit/seeds |
| Alismataceae (arrowhead) | Fruit/seeds |
| Cyperaceae (bulrush, sedge) | Tubers |
| Annelida: Hirudinea (leeches) | Unknown |
| Mollusca: Gastropoda (snails) | Unknown |
| Arachnida (spiders, ticks, scorpions, daddy longlegs) | Unknown |
| Crustaceans | Unknown |
| Malacostraca (isopods, amphipods, crayfishes) | Unknown |
| Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) | Nymph |
| Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches) | Unknown |
| Coleoptera (beetles) | Unknown |
| Diptera (flies, midges, mosquitoes) | Larva |
| Osteichthyes (bony fishes) | See comments |
| Salientia (frogs, toads) | All |
| Important: | |
| Poaceae (grass): oats | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): rice | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): wheat | Fruit/seeds |
| Crustaceans | Unknown |
| Malacostraca (isopods, amphipods, crayfishes) | Unknown |
| Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) | Nymph |
| Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches) | Unknown |
| Coleoptera (beetles) | Unknown |
| Juvenile: | |
| Poaceae (grass): oats | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): rice | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): wheat | Fruit/seeds |
| Crustaceans | Unknown |
| Malacostraca (isopods, amphipods, crayfishes) | Unknown |
| Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) | Nymph |
| Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches) | Unknown |
| Coleoptera (beetles) | Unknown |
| Adult: | |
| Poaceae (grass): oats | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): rice | Fruit/seeds |
| Poaceae (grass): wheat | Fruit/seeds |
| Crustaceans | Unknown |
| Malacostraca (isopods, amphipods, crayfishes) | Unknown |
| Odonata (dragonflies, damselflies) | Nymph |
| Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, cockroaches) | Unknown |
| Coleoptera (beetles) | Unknown |
| Diptera (flies, midges, mosquitoes) | Larva |
| Salientia (frogs, toads) | All |
Comments on food habits:
General: King rails are omnivorous but feed largely on animal matter *09,10*. Insects, mostly beetles, grasshoppers, aquatic bugs, and dragonfly nymphs are principle food items *10*. Crayfish are an important food item locally *04,09*. Seeds and other parts of plants are eaten casually but waste grain may be important during fall and winter *02, 04*.
Juvenile: Assume juveniles share food habits of adults *00*.
Adult: See [FH].
General:
- Biodegradable organics: clean waters that have not been polluted
- Aquatic habitat: shallows with emergent vegetation (littoral zone)
- Water level: see comments
- Water depth preference: < 1 ft.
- Aquatic habitats: typha-scirpus marsh
- Aquatic habitats: freshwater marsh
- Aquatic habitats: swamp, general
- Aquatic habitats: mud flats
- Aquatic habitats: vegetated streambank
- Aquatic habitats: bogs
- Aquatic habitats: embayments
- Aquatic habitats: sloughs, bayous
- Aquatic habitats: ditches
- Aquatic habitats: prairie potholes
- Aquatic habitats: swamp
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
- Aquatic habitats: oxbow
- Aquatic habitats: backwaters
- Ecotones: old field/water
- Ecotones: crop field/water
- Ecotones: grassland/water
- Grassland: see comments
- Old fields: see comments
- Unknown
Limiting:
- Water level: see comments
- Water depth preference: < 1 ft.
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
- Unknown
Feeding juvenile:
- Biodegradable organics: clean waters that have not been polluted
- Aquatic habitat: shallows with emergent vegetation (littoral zone)
- Water depth preference: < 1 ft.
- Aquatic habitats: typha-scirpus marsh
- Aquatic habitats: freshwater marsh
- Aquatic habitats: swamp, general
- Aquatic habitats: mud flats
- Aquatic habitats: vegetated streambank
- Aquatic habitats: sloughs, bayous
- Aquatic habitats: ditches
- Aquatic habitats: swamp
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
- Ecotones: old field/water
- Ecotones: crop field/water
- Ecotones: grassland/water
- Grassland: see comments
- Old fields: see comments
Resting juvenile:
- Aquatic habitat: shallows with emergent vegetation (littoral zone)
- Aquatic habitats: typha-scirpus marsh
- Aquatic habitats: freshwater marsh
- Aquatic habitats: swamp, general
- Aquatic habitats: mud flats
- Aquatic habitats: vegetated streambank
- Aquatic habitats: sloughs, bayous
- Aquatic habitats: ditches
- Aquatic habitats: swamp
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
Feeding adult:
- Biodegradable organics: clean waters that have not been polluted
- Aquatic habitat: shallows with emergent vegetation (littoral zone)
- Water depth preference: < 1 ft.
- Aquatic habitats: typha-scirpus marsh
- Aquatic habitats: freshwater marsh
- Aquatic habitats: swamp, general
- Aquatic habitats: mud flats
- Aquatic habitats: vegetated streambank
- Aquatic habitats: sloughs, bayous
- Aquatic habitats: ditches
- Aquatic habitats: swamp
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
- Ecotones: old field/water
- Ecotones: crop field/water
- Ecotones: grassland/water
- Grassland: see comments
- Old fields: see comments
Resting adult:
- Aquatic habitat: shallows with emergent vegetation (littoral zone)
- Aquatic habitats: typha-scirpus marsh
- Aquatic habitats: freshwater marsh
- Aquatic habitats: swamp, general
- Aquatic habitats: mud flats
- Aquatic habitats: vegetated streambank
- Aquatic habitats: sloughs, bayous
- Aquatic habitats: ditches
- Aquatic habitats: swamp
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
Breeding adult:
- Aquatic habitat: shallows with emergent vegetation (littoral zone)
- Water level: see comments
- Water depth preference: < 1 ft.
- Aquatic habitats: typha-scirpus marsh
- Aquatic habitats: freshwater marsh
- Aquatic habitats: swamp, general
- Aquatic habitats: mud flats
- Aquatic habitats: vegetated streambank
- Aquatic habitats: sloughs, bayous
- Aquatic habitats: ditches
- Aquatic habitats: swamp
- Aquatic habitats: marsh
- Ecotones: old field/water
- Ecotones: crop field/water
- Ecotones: grassland/water
- Grassland: see comments
- Old fields: see comments
Comments on environmental associations:
General: Typically a bird of freshwater marshes but known to inhabit or utilize a wide variety of habitats as long as terrain supports a reasonable amount of vegetation and is frequently wet *09*. Freshwater wetlands are a serious limiting factor to the king rail and all species that depend on them *09*. The affect of pesticides on the king rail or its food resources is unknown *09*.
Feeding juvenile: Juveniles leave nest quickly and either wait under cover of aquatic or dense vegetation for parents to deliver food or accompnay parents to feeding area *04*. See [FA].
Resting juvenile: Assume rest under cover of dense aquatic vegetation near nest. See *04*. *00*.
Feeding adult: Usually feed in areas where concealed by plant cover or in comparatively open areas where they are cryptic and cover is near *04*. Typically forage in shallow water approx. 2-3 inches but will forage in grassy or cultivated fields that occur near water, also mudflats and roadside ditches *04,08,09*.
Resting adult: Assume rest under cover of dense aquatic vegetation near nest during breeding season and under or near cover remainder of time *00*.
Breeding adult: Nest usually placed above or near water in clump or tussock of thick vegetation or freshwater plants *03,04*. Freshwater marshes, ponds, sloughs, marshy edges of lakes, sluggish streams and roadside ditches are popular nesting places *16*.
Origin: Native *01,13*.
Physical description: Largest of north american rails. length 15-19 in.; wingspread 21-25 in.; ave. wt. for males 415.4 g; females 306.0 g. sexes alike but males average larger. King rails have a bright red- brown breast and strong barring on flanks; long slightly decurved brown-tipped yellow bill *02,04,14*.
Reproduction: Little data exists for Illinois. Most information is taken from Meanley 1969. King rails arrive from wintering grounds beginning around mid May *01*. In Iowa, nesting begins soon after arrival approx 1st week in May *04*. Nesting period varies with latitude, 3-4 mos. in north and longer at southern latitudes *04,09*. Males choose territory and initial occupation is indicated by mating call *04*. Their schedule of arrival and stage of courtship determines the size and choice of a territory *04*. Prenuptial courtship consists mainly of walking about with tail uplifted and white undertail coverts extended *04*. Calls and courtship feeding also performed *04*. Male selects nest site and is apparently more active in building nest than female *02,16*. Nest usually placed above water in clump or tussock of marsh grasses, rushes, or other aquatic vegetation *16*. Height of nest usu. depends on depth of water but typically 6-18 in. *04,16*. Nest is constructed of dead grasses, sedges or rushes with a base of decaying vegetation and a canopy of standing vegetation *04,16*. Meanley (1969) states that several brood nests without a canopy are constructed near the egg nest *04*. Ramp may be constructed from nest to water *02*. Copulation takes place near nest site before and during egg-laying *04*. Egg laying has been recorded in Illinois from 4 May-26 June *03*. Ave. clutch size is 10-12 (6-13); laid 1 a day *04,16*. Eggs are pale buff sparingly or irregularly spotted with browns; 41 x 30 mm (56) *04,16*. Incubation extends from 21-23 days and performed by both sexes *02,04,16*. In Ark. eggs hatched within a 24-28 hr. period *04*. Hatchlings are covered with black down and have a faint greenish sheen. For description of young and their development see *04*. Meanley (1969) reports that hatchilngs were able to leave nest in <1 hr. *04*. Young birds are fed within 2 hrs. of hatching. Young either follow their parents to feeding areas or remain concealed in grasses waiting for food to be delivered *04*. A pair may remain with its brood for over 1 month while staying within approx. 100 ft. Of nest for the first 3 wks. *04*. Young begin to fly at approx. 9 wks.; when dispersal occurs is unknown *02,09*. Apparently king rails are single brooded but possibly double-brooded in southern part of range *09,16*. First year birds usually do not breed *04*. Nesting success appears high in most areas; Ark. 75%; Iowa 67% *04,09*. Ave. number of eggs hatched per nest in Ark. was 9.9 *04*.
Behavior: The king rail is territorial holding both nesting and apparently feeding territories. Meanley (1969) reported a pair defending a specific feeding area 20 ft. Square approx. 40 yds. away from their nest *04*. It is known rails have favored feeding sites i.e., muskrat houses or piles of drift debris. For more information see *04*. The schedule of arrival and stage of courtship determine the size and quality of a males breeding territory *04*. Initial territories are known to diminish in size partly due to 1) pressure from other courting males, 2) burning or disappearance of cover within original territory or 3) the satisfaction of requirements for nesting, particularly plenty of water and ample food *04*. Both sexes defend. Reported densities include 25 males/100 yds. In river marsh, 30 males/100 yds. In inland marsh, 3 nests in 5.39 acres of marsh *04*. The king rail is restricted to the humid freshwater region of the eastern U.S. *09*. The Mississippi River Valley is recognized as 1 of 2 important flyways for this species *04,09*. Two major migration periods of the king rail are April and May & August and Sept. *09*. Apparently males and femlaes are known to return to the same areas of the same marshes for several consecutive years to breed *04,09*. It is unclear if the same pairs mate each year.
Limiting factors: Like all species associated with wetlands, the most important limiting factor that can be suggested is habitat destruction *09*. Bateman (1972) reports the bulk of mortality among king rail populations results from aerial collisions, predation, severe weather, disease and parasites. No reasons were given *09*. Meanley (1969) also suggests automoblies and muskrat traps as mortality factors *04*. The king rail has a wide variety of natural enemies including raccoons, mink, fox, snakes, snapping turtles, barred and great-horned owls, feral cats and hawks *03,04*. The king rail is not considered a game bird because of its low numbers and infrequent sitings *15*. Because Illinois is on the fringe of the king rails distributional range few migrants are known to pass through Illinois.
Population parameters: Because the king rail and its broods are inconspicuous, population parameters are difficult to obtain and virtually unknown. In Illinois the population is apparently declining possibly because of its association with wetlands *01,09*. Only Meanley (1969) has estimated that survival of fledglings to 2 wks. of age at approx. 50% *04*. Because of its low priority as a game bird the king rail's needs are not of immediate concern but this species should benefit from efforts made to protect wetland habitat of ducks and geese in the eastern half of the U.S. *09*. Key fields for research include population densities, productivity, mortality rates, banding data and pesticide relationships *09*. For management recommendations see *09*.
Beneficial:
- Maintaining undisturbed/undeveloped areas
- Maintaining natural areas and nature preserves
- Maintaining unique or special habitat features (wetlands, snags, caves, cliffs, talises, etc.)
- Preserving sensitive species habitat
- Performing field survey prior to prescription
- Controlling land use and human activities
- Controlling pollution
- Controlling pollution in aquatic habitats
- Developing/maintaining lakes and ponds
- Developing/maintaining wetlands
- Creating/maintaining wetlands from non-wetlands
- Developing/maintaining mudflats
- Maintaining bogs
- Protecting existing wetlands
- Restoration of wetlands (return flooded or drained areas to previous wetland conditions)
- Developing/maintaining riparian habitat
- Developing/maintaining ditchbank vegetation to prevent erosion and provide riparian habitat
- Developing/maintaining streamside vegetation to prevent erosion and provide riparian habitat
- Revegetating streambanks using grass-forb-sedge-tree mixtures
- No-till farming
- Retaining crop residue (over winter)
- Seeding aquatic plants
- Estimating/maintaining nesting and escape cover
Adverse:
- Locating, designing, developing, and constructing roads
- Recreational development
- Channelization
- Dredging
- Controlling aquatic plants
- Draining ponds/lakes
- Draining wetlands
- Removing bank vegetation
- Clean farming
- Strip mining
Existing:
- Performing special survey prior to prescription
Comments on management practices:
Because little is known about the king rail in Illinois only habitat protection is recognized as essential *09*. The effects of pesticides and general population parameters need further study. The king rail is no longer considered a game species in Illinois because of low numbers and infrequent sitings *15*. For recommendations see *09*.
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